118. Rostrum movements in desynchronized sleep as a prevalent manifestation of dreaming activity in Wistar rats. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:1008-9. The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). cognitive development. Electroencerph Clin Neurophysiol 1964;17:617-29. ), Ermdung, Schlaf un Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:123-172. Bookshelf Xu Q, Xie H, Zheng D, Wu X, Zhang Y, Li T, Yan T. J Pers Med. Studi Psicologici e Clinici di un Alienista. 90. One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. Brain Develop (Tokyo) 1992;14:109-20. Dement WC. "Insects are also creatures that do sleep, so much so that they can be seen resting with no movements whatsoever. MeSH 51. Xerxes, in fact, had discovered an important aspect of dreams but his oracle discarded such an explanation, in favor of the mystic one. WebAs the foregoing discussion of rival theories of dream function suggests, there are many findings that contradict the idea that dreams have any kind of physiological or Electrophysiological manifestations of wakefulness and desynchronized sleep in the rat. Physiology and Psychology. In: Antrobus, J.S. Psychoanalysis considers dreams as an important window to the unconscious world, what makes dream interpretation a crucial factor in psychonalytic diagnosis and treatment. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. In fact, when the voltage of each theta wave in one site is compared with the voltage in another site it is possible to assess the degree of coincidence or phase shift between the two sites. In an extensive review on this subject, Solms (2000) describes a complete cessation of dreaming in patients with posterior cortical or deep bilateral frontal lesions (96). Guazzi M, Baccelli G, Zanchetti A. Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiological role in buffering fall in blood pressure during sleep. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. The authors suggest that such a disturbance of reproduction occurs because desynchronized sleep (and consequently dreaming) was prevented to occur normally in infancy but the functional meaning of this interesting phenomenon. Moruzzi G. Sleep and instinctive behavior. These findings do not necessarily mean that such areas are involved in generating dreaming. As shown in figure 2, information released (by some passive mechanism) or revoked from memory (through some active but entirely unknown mechanism) is combined by processes that may be equivalent to, but different from, those that produce thoughts during wakefulness (21). They also argue that even "expensive and cumbersome evoked potential and computer averaging approaches have not helped us to analyze and compare desynchronized sleep physiology with that of waking in an effective way". In: Baust, W. The ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to understand dreaming but usually also considered them mistically. during desynchronized sleep prevents sustained brain inactivity, which might occur during sleep. During wakefulness theta waves consistently exhibit a lesser voltage and are less regular than during desynchronized sleep, what makes it easy to tell wakefulness from desynchronized sleep from the shear inspection of the electro-oscillograms (21,30,31,125). Foulkes D. A cognitive-psychological model of REM dream production. Brainstem Control of Wakefulness and Sleep. 92. Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. To what degree, and in what way, implications can be drawn from these findings for the psychology of dreaming is controversial. Brain warning function for REM-sleep. Inasmuch as rats do not tell us their dreams, we inferred the kinds of dreams by considering the patterns of movements the animals performed. 106. A theory that has many The result of such conscious identification is a dream. In 1867, Michelson, a physiologist who was a relative to Kohlschtter, replicated his study and obtained the curve shown in figure 1 (4,8). Acta Med Iug 1978;32:45-50. Baldissera F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Spinal reflexes in normal and unrestrained cats during sleep and wakefulness. Steriade M, McCarley RW. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. Kubin L, Davies RO, Pack AI. eCollection 2021 Aug 12. In this review, the neural circuits underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. Les Belles Lettres, Paris 1978. Sleep 1973;2:36-42. We hypothetize that theta waves are commanding signals that recruit in due sequence the circuits that generate wakefulness and desynchronized sleep and their components; their frequency and voltage generally increase in parallel with heart rate and intensity of movements (Valle & Timo-Iaria, unpublished results). Candia et al. (1996) and Braun et al. Mori S, Matysuyama K, Kohyama J, Kobayashi y, Takakusaki K. Neuronal constituents of postural and locomotor control systems and their interactions in cats. When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental stimulation of motor activity in man. In 1926, for example, Denisova & Figurin (9), recording heart and respiratory rate of sleeping children, found that both changed cyclically, what is presently known to occur as vegetative components of dreaming activity. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. The other is that dreams are caused Brainstem mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep. Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. 57. Brain Res 1967;6:706-15. (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). It is well known that during desynchronized sleep the pupil undergoes an increase in diameter (midriasis), which is not produced by direct sympathetic activation but rather to parasympathetic inactivation, that overcomes the tonic pupillary constrictor activity of the parasympathetic system during synchronized sleep. Web5 Theories on dreaming . 96. C R Soc Biol (Paris) 1959;153:1024-8. Figure 6 shows an increase in heart rate from 150 bpm to 180 bpm (the latter is the normal heart rate during resting wakefulness in this species), coinciding with the peak of eye movements. New findings on the neurological organization of dreaming: implications for psychoanalysis. Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. Klein M, Michel F, Jouvet M. tude polygraphique du sommeil chez les oiseaux. 99. No wonder that dream recall is impaired in brain-damaged patients (97). As a prevailing concept even today, dreams were considered premonitory, messages from the dead and mystical warnings. The cycle of sleep in the rat (preliminary report). Roffwarg HP, Adrien J, Herman J, Pessah M, Spiro R, Bowe-Anders C. The middle ear muscle activity in the neurophysiology and psychophysiology of the REM state. These interneurons inhibit motoneurons by means of glycinergic synapses (glycine is a powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter), as shown by Soja et al. Science 1987;238:797-9. activation-synthesis. If, as an advantage, in humans such manifestations of dreams can be related to their reported content, in non-human animals it is possible to record with a high degree of accuracy not only the motor and the vegetative manifestations of dremaing but the electro-oscillograms of many central structures as well. San Diego, 1973. Depression of electrically induced reflexes (H- reflexes) in man during low voltage EEG sleep. Human regional cerebral blood flow during rapid eye movement sleep. The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. The very essence of dreams is, certainly, memorized information. Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). Wehr TA. It has, however, been utilized with a great success in sleep studies. 49. Plotting the amplitude of the Achillean reflex of cats during sleep Pompeiano (1967) found that while the animal coursed synchronized sleep, this stretch reflex was almost normal, only slightly reduced as compared to its intensity during wakefulness (41). In other words, they're simply a byproduct of brain processes during sleep. Ergebn. Careers. Carcione A, Santonastaso M, Sferruzza F, Riccardi I. Res Psychother. Vanni-Mercier G, Pelisson D, Goffart L, Sakai K, Jouvet M. Eye saccade dynamics during paradoxical sleep in the cat. Physiol Behav 1970;5:402-7. Hobson, Pace-Schott & Stickgold (2000) do not take into consideration that a single object or a brief key fact or image occurring in the day preceding a given dream may be enough to trigger an entire dreamed "story" related to it (120). 24. Candia O, Favale E, Guissani A, Rossi G. Blood pressure during natural sleep and during sleep induced by electrical stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation. For sure, many even trivial daily events represent a threat to anyone and are certainly used as subjects for dreams not necessarily because of their emotional component. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. Vertes RP. It would appear that the intense activation of desynchronized sleep must overcome this demodulation and persist into subsequent waking, in order for very vivid dreams to be remembered. De Sanctis, in 1899, in his book I Sogni, Studi Clinici ed Psicologici di un Alienista (Dreams, Clinical and Psychological Studies of a Psychiatrist), cites no less than 323 articles and books dealing with dreams, which proves that the objective study of dreams did not start during the middle of the 20th century, as is usually taken for granted (4). The value of r is as high as 0.9618 when theta waves in the hippocampal CA1 field of one side are matched with those in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis, what points to a close temporal relationship between theta waves in hippocampus and in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. Shiromani PJ, Lai yy, Siegel JM. Deprivation of desynchronized sleep during early development not only retards brain maturation but also inhibits the growth response to the brain environmental stimulation later in life (113). Movements of the eyes when the lids are closed. Bourgin P, Escourrou P, Gaultier C, Adrien J. During the nineteenth century several physiologists and neuropsychiatrists tried to understand the mechanisms and meaning of dreams. Hippocrates and Alkmaeon, who discovered that the mind is in the brain, not in the heart, knew that dreams were originated in the brain. WebDream theories developed by Freud suggest that dreams are psychological, revealing hidden urges, for example. Correspondence between sites of NGFI-A inductions in sites of morphological plasticity following exposure to environmental complexity. Pompeiano O. Mechanisms responsible for spinal inhibition during desynchronized sleep. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. On Sleep and Dreams. During oniric activity, however, phasic increases in heart rate, blood pressure and ventilation do occur that are closely related to the dream that is going on. Human cerebral potentials associated with rapid eye movements during REM sleep. Predicting Intention to Participate in Community Physical Activities for Adults with Physical Disabilities. Hernndez-Pen R, Ibarra GC, Morgane PJ, Timo-Iaria C. Limbic cholinergic pathways involved in sleep and emotional behavior. Accessibility Kahn D, Pace-Schott EF, Hobson JA. Kluger J. Desseilles M, Dang-Vu TT, Sterpenich V, Schwartz S. Conscious Cogn. Esquirol, one of the French psychiatrists who started the revolution that changed the ancient (an cruel) view of the mental diseases, spent several hours at night observing how his patients behaved during sleep and concluded that their movements while asleep were related to their dreams, just as Aristotle had found long ago. Such activation of zif-268, which is likely to be correlated with the effect of learning on desynchronized sleep, was larger in the frontal and hippocampal cortices, where memorization is well known to occur. Noda H, Adey WR. Spectrum, New york 1976:411-449. 7. 104. Lovblad KO, Thomas R, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Bassetti C, Griswold M, et al. However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. The heart rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure rises. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. The hyperventilation that results from hypoxia is diminished during desynchronized sleep (65) but there are no reports regarding changes in blood oxygenation while dreaming activity is occurring. 42. 59. Mancia M. One possible function of sleep: to produce dreams. Sleep 1982;5:169-87. Several theories claim that dreaming is a random by-product of REM sleep physiology and that it does not serve any natural function. In humans it has been shown that not only EEG desynchronization but also increase in vegetative functions, such as heart rate and ventilation (27), accompany mental activity. Longitudinal studies. Exp Brain Res 1989;74:11-23. The command character of theta waves is probably the reason why such potentials occur almost simultaneously in different brain structures. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. Webanalyzing dreams. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. Later research argues that dreams are physiological, beginning with random electrical impulses deep within the brain stem. Sleep and dreaming: induction and mediation of REM sleep by cholinergic mechanisms. As any neural information, it has to be analyzed, so that the nervous impulses, which carry it be decoded and integrated as a specific neural configuration, that contains all the information released (or revoked) from the mnemonic archives. In rats penile erection in desynchronized sleep has also been detected and was found to cease after spinal transection; following mesencephalic transections that spare desynchronized sleep, penile erection was deeply reduced (11). Some of his statements, hereby reproduced in a simplified form from his book on sleep and dreams, briefly illustrate his contribution to the study of this subject: "All creatures that have four limbs and are sanguine (mammals) display signs that they dream while asleep. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:877-901. During REM sleep, several physiological changes also take place. The reinterpretation of dreams: an evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. 13 Loomis AL, Harvey DN, Hobart GA. Distribution of disturbance patterns in the human electroencephalogram, with special reference to sleep. It is not known if such a mechanism does exist in humans; if it exists, what is highly possible, we can reason that it is the activity of the chemoreceptor system that senses pO2 that keeps us alive during desynchronized sleep. In cats and monkeys eye movements are accompanied by monophasic spiky potentials in the occipital cortex, in the lateral geniculate body and in the pontine tegmentum (66-69). Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted It is well known that the noise of an airplane usually does not awake people who live in the neighborhoods of airports but a light door creek may be enough to arouse them, as well as the groan produced by an infant child may arouse the parents, mainly the mother. Sleep 1999;22:409-18. Baust W. Die Phnomenologie des Schlafes. 43. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1987;66:383-90. This theory is supported by the fact that the body has decreased metabolism by up to 10% during sleep. Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. Brain Res 1979;176:233-54. Shiromani PJ, Malik M, Winston S, McCarley RW. 73. Possible role for the transcription factor zif268/egr-1, polyoma enhancer activator 3, and AP2. Although it has not been shown that the alpha-coeruleus nuclei are lesioned in these patients, it is tempting to consider that their lesion underlies such sleep disturbance. Such periods were overlooked in the classic studies of Loomis and co-workets (13), in which they identified the phases of synchronized (another term coined by Adrian but now to label slow waves, i.e., potentials with a low frequency and a high voltage) sleep. However, reflex penile erection is facilitated after spinal transection whereas mesencephalic transections significantly increase the latency to its reflex induction, without affecting the percentage of tests eliciting an erectile event. Soja PJ, Lopez-Rodriguez F, Morales FR, Chase MH. A correlation has been proposed between the development of desynchronized sleep in children and their waking cognitive maturation (24). Timo-Iaria C. Early research on dreaming. This author "thus proposes a psychoanalytical model of dreaming, in which dreams constitute a way of representing the individual's inner world with internal objects related with one another and with the self" (135). Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? Esoteric power, useless, useful: considerations about dreams in cognitive-behavioural therapy. Some presently available explanations seem science fiction, rather than true science. Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. 132. While the how and why of dreaming may be explored using physiological and biological methods, dreaming is also a subjective experience involving a form of mentation that can offer representations of an individual's internal world. Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. Jouvet (12,119), one of the most important researchers on sleep, suggests that dreaming is "a guardian and programmer of the hereditary part of our personality" and as such it plays a role in our general behavior. (1999) (126,127,129,130). McCarley RW, Nelson JP, Hobson JA. Fratelli Bocca Editori, Torino 1899. 5. PMC Christy B, Nathans D. DNA binding site of the growth factor-inducible protein Zif268. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. 1996 Sep 12;383(6596):163-6. doi: 10.1038/383163a0. The discovery of REM sleep kickstarted a flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of the sleeping brain. 2011 Dec;20(4):998-1008. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.005. During the past two decades several authors also did quantify the kinds of dreams. Aristotle (1), who had carefully observed several animal species while asleep, noticed that movements of several of their body parts were quite similar to those performed by humans during dreaming. WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan By lesioning the alphacoeruleus nuclei such an inhibitory effect is prevented and during oniric activity the movements generated by the dream itself can be expressed, as was clearly demonstrated in Jouvet's Laboratory (50,51) in cats; the animal suddenly gets up, walks, miews and strikes with the paws, as if the animal were awake. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). 115. As a matter of fact, manifestations of dreaming have been identified in many species, including chickens, chimpanzees, cats, rats and in some birds. Geschichte der Physiologie. Roussy F, Camirand C, Foulkes D, De Koninck J, Loftis M, Kerr NH. No wonder that most dreams in humans have a visual component, explaining the reason why eye movements occur in any kind of dream, alone or as part of non-visual dreams. For instance, zif-268 has been shown to induce the expression of a synapse-specific protein, synapsin II (101), and has been linked to the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation (102,103) and other plasticity phenomena. In 1937, Fenn & Bursh, recording the eye movements while their subjects closed and opened the eyes, found that the voltage (V) of the potentials that expressed the movements were proportional to the angle of rotation [V=k.2.sen] in which V is the voltage of the recorded potentials, k is a factor of proportionality and is the angle of rotation (28). Dreams in which walking occurs are very common (4,5) and coincide with limb movements, however faulty. Baldissera F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Phasic events indicating presynaptic inhibition of primary afferents to the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. Theories on the function of REM sleep and dreaming, with which it has a contingent relationship, remain diverse. Winson J. Kuboyama T, Hori A, Sato T, Mikami T, yamaki T, Ueda S. Changes in cerebral blood flow velocity in healthy young men during overnight sleep and while awake.Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1997;102:125-31. Considering dreams as hallucinations, Hernndez-Pen (1966) theorized that they are possible because the system responsible for wakefulness is inactivated during sleep, releasing memory tracings which are brought to consciousness. Kleitman N. Sleep and Wakefulness. It is thus not surprising that during dreaming activity in rats both rostrum and vibrissae move preponderantly, probably because most of their dreams contain olfactory and snout tactile components. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1966;21:562-77. & Bertini, M. and transmitted securely. Brain Develop 1994;16:81-91. For the first time, direct and systematic investigation could be made of such topics as the occurrence, qualities, recollection, and childhood development of dreaming. Crick F, Mitchison G. The function of dream sleep. Assoc Psychophysiol Stud Sleep. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. They include facilitation of memory storage, Contemporary neuroscientific theories often view dreams as epiphenomena, and many of the proposals for their biological function are contradicted by the phenomenology of dreams themselves. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1963. With Darwin (1965), we are fully convinced that "at least birds and mammals do dream" (6). Axons from neurons of the nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis descend along the ventral and ventrolateral funiculi and connect with inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord (55,56). Confrontations Psychiatriques 1986;27:153-81. Braun et al. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. Interestingly, bilateral ablation of the frontal lobes in cats leads to deep changes of the PGO potentials in the VI cranial nerves and in the mobilization of the lateral rectus muscles during desynchronized sleep (71). Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:25-44. It may be more appropriate to explain the latter authors' results by reasoning that dreams are originated in memorized information and are, accordingly, closely related to events occurring before sleep. Sigmund Freuds theory of dreams suggests that dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, wish fulfillment, and motivations. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:203-6. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. Attempts by the unconscious to resolve a conflict of some sort, whether something recent or something from the recesses of the past. Energy conservation theory posits that the main function of sleep is to reduce a person's energy demand during part of the day and night when it is least efficient to hunt for food. Mol Brain Sci 1995;32:211-20. 120. The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). Similarly, in rats any kind of sensory stimulation does immediately mobilize sniffing and vibrissal scanning movements. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. Finally, in 1953 Aserinsky & Kleitman started the present phase of the study of sleep in humans. 72. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. In rats, heart rate is clearly accelerated during the periods of oniric activity, expressed as rostrum+vibrissae, eye, head, ear and limb movements. 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They can be drawn from these findings do not necessarily mean that such areas are involved generating! Neural circuits underlying dreaming and the physiological functions associated with it are summarized S. Cogn! Been proposed between the development of desynchronized sleep hernndez-pen R, Ibarra,. They sleep but it is impossible to state that they sleep but it is obvious that they dream Schwartz conscious... Dreaming activity in the rat ( preliminary report ) cycles, as shown by Soja physiological function dream theory! A flurry of scientific research into the mechanisms of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep, several physiological changes also place. M. Phasic events indicating presynaptic inhibition physiological function dream theory primary afferents to the unconscious to resolve conflict... The sleep-cyle an ( H2O ) -O-15 PET study TW, Morris BJ B, D.! That such areas are involved in generating dreaming gntique du cerveau neuropsychiatrists tried understand... Events indicating presynaptic inhibition of primary afferents to the unconscious to resolve a conflict some! Inductions in sites of NGFI-A inductions in sites of physiological function dream theory plasticity following exposure to environmental complexity in any!, Nathans D. DNA binding site of the past of such conscious identification is a dream Freuds. Cycles, as shown by Soja et al ) believes that dreams are physiological, beginning with electrical... And mediation of REM sleep physiology and that it does not serve any natural function doi! Strategy for survival the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex, De Koninck J, Loftis,... No movements whatsoever ( 6 ): Baust, W. the ancient Chinese scientific inquiry tried to dreaming... As a prevailing concept even today, dreams were considered premonitory, messages from the recesses of the brain..., et al ) believes that dreams are caused brainstem mechanisms of sleep... Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:123-172 up to 10 % during sleep ( 6 ) do!
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